Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1381-6128
ISSN (Online): 1873-4286

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Diagnostic Approach and Treatment Regimens in Adult Patients Suffering from Antibody- mediated or Paraneoplastic Encephalitis

Author(s): Stefan Macher*, Gabriel Bsteh, Thomas Berger and Romana Höftberger

Volume 28, Issue 6, 2022

Published on: 31 January, 2022

Page: [454 - 467] Pages: 14

DOI: 10.2174/1381612828666220131093259

Price: $65

Abstract

Identification of patients with antibody-mediated encephalitis poses a diagnostic challenge, and any delay in that aspect will increase the interval until the initiation of immunotherapy and may negatively affect the patient´s clinical outcome. Within this review, we focus on therapeutic strategies in antibody-mediated encephalitis and propose how to proceed with patients who are suspected of having encephalitis of unknown origin. We further briefly outline differences in the treatment of paraneoplastic and antibody-mediated encephalitis according to its pathomechanisms.

Keywords: Antibody-mediated encephalitis, paraneoplastic encephalitis, auto-antibodies, treatment, regimens, immunotherapy.

« Previous Next »
[1]
Corsellis JA, Goldberg GJ, Norton AR. “Limbic encephalitis” and its association with carcinoma. Brain 1968; 91(3): 481-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/91.3.481] [PMID: 5723018]
[2]
Greenlee JE, Brashear HR. Antibodies to cerebellar Purkinje cells in patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and ovarian carcinoma. Ann Neurol 1983; 14(6): 609-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.410140603] [PMID: 6360029]
[3]
Graus F, Delattre JY, Antoine JC, et al. Recommended diagnostic criteria for paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75(8): 1135-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2003.034447] [PMID: 15258215]
[4]
Graus F, Elkon KB, Lloberes P, et al. Neuronal antinuclear antibody (anti-Hu) in paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis simulating acute polyneuritis. Acta Neurol Scand 1987; 75(4): 249-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0404.1987.tb07928.x] [PMID: 3035860]
[5]
Grunwald GB, Klein R, Simmonds MA, Kornguth SE. Autoimmune basis for visual paraneoplastic syndrome in patients with small-cell lung carcinoma. Lancet 1985; 1(8430): 658-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(85)91326-1] [PMID: 2858616]
[6]
Shillito P, Molenaar PC, Vincent A, et al. Acquired neuromyotonia: evidence for autoantibodies directed against K+ channels of peripheral nerves. Ann Neurol 1995; 38(5): 714-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.410380505] [PMID: 7486862]
[7]
Buckley C, Oger J, Clover L, et al. Potassium channel antibodies in two patients with reversible limbic encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2001; 50(1): 73-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.1097] [PMID: 11456313]
[8]
Lai M, Huijbers MGM, Lancaster E, et al. Investigation of LGI1 as the antigen in limbic encephalitis previously attributed to potassium channels: a case series. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9(8): 776-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70137-X] [PMID: 20580615]
[9]
Lancaster E, Huijbers MGM, Bar V, et al. Investigations of caspr2, an autoantigen of encephalitis and neuromyotonia. Ann Neurol 2011; 69(2): 303-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.22297] [PMID: 21387375]
[10]
Irani SR, Alexander S, Waters P, et al. Antibodies to Kv1 potassium channel-complex proteins leucine-rich, glioma inactivated 1 protein and contactin-associated protein-2 in limbic encephalitis, Morvan’s syndrome and acquired neuromyotonia. Brain 2010; 133(9): 2734-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq213] [PMID: 20663977]
[11]
Dalmau J, Graus F. Antibody-mediated encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2018; 378(9): 840-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1708712] [PMID: 29490181]
[12]
Dubey D, Pittock SJ, Kelly CR, et al. Autoimmune encephalitis epidemiology and a comparison to infectious encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2018; 83(1): 166-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.25131] [PMID: 29293273]
[13]
Granerod J, Ambrose HE, Davies NW, et al. Causes of encephalitis and differences in their clinical presentations in England: a multicentre, population-based prospective study. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10(12): 835-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70222-X] [PMID: 20952256]
[14]
Prüss H, Dalmau J, Harms L, et al. Retrospective analysis of NMDA receptor antibodies in encephalitis of unknown origin. Neurology 2010; 75(19): 1735-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a06] [PMID: 21060097]
[15]
Vogrig A, Gigli GL, Segatti S, et al. Epidemiology of paraneoplastic neurological syndromes: a population-based study. J Neurol 2020; 267(1): 26-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-019-09544-1] [PMID: 31552550]
[16]
Titulaer MJ, Soffietti R, Dalmau J, et al. Screening for tumours in paraneoplastic syndromes: report of an EFNS task force. Eur J Neurol 2011; 18(1): 19-e3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.03220.x] [PMID: 20880069]
[17]
Armangue T, Leypoldt F, Málaga I, et al. Herpes simplex virus encephalitis is a trigger of brain autoimmunity. Ann Neurol 2014; 75(2): 317-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.24083] [PMID: 24318406]
[18]
Armangue T, Titulaer MJ, Málaga I, et al. Pediatric anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis-clinical analysis and novel findings in a series of 20 patients. J Pediatr 2013; 162(4): 850-856.e2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.10.011] [PMID: 23164315]
[19]
Armangue T, Moris G, Cantarín-Extremera V, et al. Autoimmune post-herpes simplex encephalitis of adults and teenagers. Neurology 2015; 85(20): 1736-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002125] [PMID: 26491084]
[20]
Prüss H, Finke C, Höltje M, et al. N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies in herpes simplex encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2012; 72(6): 902-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.23689] [PMID: 23280840]
[21]
Prüss H. Postviral autoimmune encephalitis: manifestations in children and adults. Curr Opin Neurol 2017; 30(3): 327-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000445] [PMID: 28234798]
[22]
Martinez HR, Olguin-Ramirez LA, Camara-Lemarroy CR. Lyme borreliosis as a trigger for NMDA receptor encephalitis? Neurol Sci Off J Ital Neurol Soc Ital Soc Clin Neurophysiol 2018; 39(10): 1815-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10072-018-3497-9] [PMID: 30008117]
[23]
Gable MS, Gavali S, Radner A, et al. Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: report of ten cases and comparison with viral encephalitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2009; 28(12): 1421-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10096-009-0799-0] [PMID: 19718525]
[24]
Kim T-J, Lee S-T, Moon J, et al. Anti-LGI1 encephalitis is associated with unique HLA subtypes. Ann Neurol 2017; 81(2): 183-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.24860] [PMID: 28026029]
[25]
Martinez-Hernandez E, Horvath J, Shiloh-Malawsky Y, Sangha N, Martinez-Lage M, Dalmau J. Analysis of complement and plasma cells in the brain of patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Neurology 2011; 77(6): 589-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318228c136] [PMID: 21795662]
[26]
Hughes EG, Peng X, Gleichman AJ, et al. Cellular and synaptic mechanisms of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Neurosci 2010; 30(17): 5866-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0167-10.2010] [PMID: 20427647]
[27]
Ohkawa T, Fukata Y, Yamasaki M, et al. Autoantibodies to epilepsy-related LGI1 in limbic encephalitis neutralize LGI1-ADAM22 interaction and reduce synaptic AMPA receptors. J Neurosci 2013; 33(46): 18161-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3506-13.2013] [PMID: 24227725]
[28]
Bien CG, Vincent A, Barnett MH, et al. Immunopathology of autoantibody-associated encephalitides: clues for pathogenesis. Brain 2012; 135(Pt 5): 1622-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/aws082] [PMID: 22539258]
[29]
Graus F, Saiz A, Dalmau J. GAD antibodies in neurological disorders - insights and challenges. Nat Rev Neurol 2020; 16(7): 353-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41582-020-0359-x] [PMID: 32457440]
[30]
Muñoz-Lopetegi A, de Bruijn MAAM, Boukhrissi S, et al. 2020 Neurologic syndromes related to anti-GAD65: Clinical and serologic response to treatment. neurol-neuroimmunol neuroinflammation Available from: https://nn.neurology.org/content/7/3/e696
[31]
Kayser MS, Titulaer MJ, Gresa-Arribas N, Dalmau J. Frequency and characteristics of isolated psychiatric episodes in anti–N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis. JAMA Neurol 2013; 70(9): 1133-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.3216] [PMID: 23877059]
[32]
Finke C, Mengel A, Prüss H, Stöcker W, Meisel A, Ruprecht K. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis mimicking HaNDL syndrome. Cephalalgia 2014; 34(12): 1012-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0333102414526070] [PMID: 24619988]
[33]
Liu J, Chen L, Yang J, Wang L, Shang H, Chen X. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis mimicking sporadic creutzfeldt-jakob disease. Front Neurol 2020; 11593680
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.593680] [PMID: 33324331]
[34]
Gastaldi M, Arbasino C, Dallocchio C, et al. NMDAR encephalitis presenting as akinesia in a patient with Parkinson disease. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 328: 35-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2018.12.002] [PMID: 30557688]
[35]
Graus F, Titulaer MJ, Balu R, et al. A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15(4): 391-404.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00401-9] [PMID: 26906964]
[36]
Frechette ES, Zhou L, Galetta SL, Chen L, Dalmau J. Prolonged follow-up and CSF antibody titers in a patient with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurology 2011; 76(7)(Suppl. 2): S64-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31820c34de] [PMID: 21321356]
[37]
Titulaer MJ, McCracken L, Gabilondo I, et al. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2013; 12(2): 157-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70310-1] [PMID: 23290630]
[38]
Gabilondo I, Saiz A, Galán L, et al. Analysis of relapses in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Neurology 2011; 77(10): 996-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31822cfc6b] [PMID: 21865579]
[39]
Chi X, Wang W, Huang C, et al. Risk factors for mortality in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Acta Neurol Scand 2017; 136(4): 298-304.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ane.12723] [PMID: 28028820]
[40]
Sonderen AV, Arends S, Tavy DLJ, et al. Predictive value of electroencephalography in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2018; 89(10): 1101-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-318376] [PMID: 30135187]
[41]
Solomon T, Michael BD, Smith PE, et al. Management of suspected viral encephalitis in adults-association of British neurologists and British infection association national guidelines. J Infect 2012; 64(4): 347-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2011.11.014] [PMID: 22120595]
[42]
Venkatesan A, Tunkel AR, Bloch KC, et al. Case definitions, diagnostic algorithms, and priorities in encephalitis: consensus statement of the international encephalitis consortium. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 57(8): 1114-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cit458] [PMID: 23861361]
[43]
Venkatesan A, Murphy OC. Viral encephalitis. Neurol Clin 2018; 36(4): 705-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2018.07.001] [PMID: 30366550]
[44]
Ma C, Wang C, Zhang Q, Lian Y. Emerging role of prodromal headache in patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. J Pain Res 2019; 12: 519-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S189301] [PMID: 30787630]
[45]
Tominaga N, Kanazawa N, Kaneko A, et al. Prodromal headache in anti-NMDAR encephalitis: An epiphenomenon of NMDAR autoimmunity. Brain Behav 2018; 8(7)e01012
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1012] [PMID: 29856136]
[46]
Gable MS, Sheriff H, Dalmau J, Tilley DH, Glaser CA. The frequency of autoimmune N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the California Encephalitis Project. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54(7): 899-904.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir1038] [PMID: 22281844]
[47]
Leypoldt F, Armangue T, Dalmau J. Autoimmune encephalopathies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2015; 1338: 94-114.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12553] [PMID: 25315420]
[48]
Tien RD, Felsberg GJ, Osumi AK. Herpesvirus infections of the CNS: MR findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 161(1): 167-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/ajr.161.1.8390790] [PMID: 8390790]
[49]
Domingues RB, Fink MC, Tsanaclis AM, et al. Diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis by magnetic resonance imaging and polymerase chain reaction assay of cerebrospinal fluid. J Neurol Sci 1998; 157(2): 148-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-510X(98)00069-0] [PMID: 9619637]
[50]
Poissy J, Wolff M, Dewilde A, et al. Factors associated with delay to acyclovir administration in 184 patients with herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009; 15(6): 560-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02735.x] [PMID: 19392906]
[51]
Jakob NJ, Lenhard T, Schnitzler P, et al. Herpes simplex virus encephalitis despite normal cell count in the cerebrospinal fluid. Crit Care Med 2012; 40(4): 1304-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182374a34] [PMID: 22067626]
[52]
Rawal G, Yadav S, Wani UR, Ambastha AK. HSV Encephalitis with Normal CSF - A Case Report with Review of Literature. J Clin Diagn Res 2015; 9(12): OD06-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2015/16999.6966] [PMID: 26816936]
[53]
Davies NW, Brown LJ, Gonde J, et al. Factors influencing PCR detection of viruses in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with suspected CNS infections. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76(1): 82-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2004.045336] [PMID: 15608000]
[54]
Kelley BP, Patel SC, Marin HL, Corrigan JJ, Mitsias PD, Griffith B. Autoimmune encephalitis: Pathophysiology and imaging review of an overlooked diagnosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2017; 38(6): 1070-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A5086] [PMID: 28183838]
[55]
Oyanguren B, Sánchez V, González FJ, et al. Limbic encephalitis: a clinical-radiological comparison between herpetic and autoimmune etiologies. Eur J Neurol 2013; 20(12): 1566-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ene.12249] [PMID: 23941332]
[56]
Watanabe T, Kuroiwa Y. [Electroencephalogram Nihon Rinsho. Jpn J Clin Med 1997; 55(4): 822-7.
[57]
Schmitt SE, Pargeon K, Frechette ES, Hirsch LJ, Dalmau J, Friedman D. Extreme delta brush: a unique EEG pattern in adults with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurology 2012; 79(11): 1094-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182698cd8] [PMID: 22933737]
[58]
Misra UK, Kalita J, Nair PP. Status epilepticus in central nervous system infections: an experience from a developing country. Am J Med 2008; 121(7): 618-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.02.012] [PMID: 18589058]
[59]
Brouwer MC, McIntyre P, Prasad K, van de Beek D. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; (6): CD004405
[PMID: 23733364]
[60]
Heckenberg SGB, Brouwer MC, van der Ende A, van de Beek D. Adjunctive dexamethasone in adults with meningococcal meningitis. Neurology 2012; 79(15): 1563-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31826e2684] [PMID: 22972648]
[61]
Ramos-Estebanez C, Lizarraga KJ, Merenda A. A systematic review on the role of adjunctive corticosteroids in herpes simplex virus encephalitis: is timing critical for safety and efficacy? Antivir Ther 2014; 19(2): 133-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3851/IMP2683] [PMID: 24009096]
[62]
Meyding-Lamadé U, Jacobi C, Martinez-Torres F, et al. The German trial on Aciclovir and Corticosteroids in Herpes-simplex-virus-Encephalitis (GACHE): a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurol Res Pract 2019; 1(1): 26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s42466-019-0031-3] [PMID: 33324892]
[63]
Dalmau J, Lancaster E, Martinez-Hernandez E, Rosenfeld MR, Balice-Gordon R. Clinical experience and laboratory investigations in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Lancet Neurol 2011; 10(1): 63-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70253-2] [PMID: 21163445]
[64]
Dale RC, Merheb V, Pillai S, et al. Antibodies to surface dopamine-2 receptor in autoimmune movement and psychiatric disorders. Brain 2012; 135(Pt 11): 3453-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/aws256] [PMID: 23065479]
[65]
Gresa-Arribas N, Planagumà J, Petit-Pedrol M, et al. Human neurexin-3α antibodies associate with encephalitis and alter synapse development. Neurology 2016; 86(24): 2235-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002775] [PMID: 27170573]
[66]
Gaig C, Graus F, Compta Y, et al. Clinical manifestations of the anti-IgLON5 disease. Neurology 2017; 88(18): 1736-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003887] [PMID: 28381508]
[67]
Honorat JA, Komorowski L, Josephs KA, et al. IgLON5 antibody: Neurological accompaniments and outcomes in 20 patients. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2017; 4(5)e385
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000385] [PMID: 28761904]
[68]
Rakocevic G, Alexopoulos H, Dalakas MC. Quantitative clinical and autoimmune assessments in stiff person syndrome: evidence for a progressive disorder. BMC Neurol 2019; 19(1): 1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12883-018-1232-z] [PMID: 30606131]
[69]
Blinder T, Lewerenz J. Cerebrospinal fluid findings in patients with autoimmune encephalitis-A systematic analysis. Front Neurol 2019; 10: 804.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.00804] [PMID: 31404257]
[70]
Ariño H, Höftberger R, Gresa-Arribas N, et al. Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes and glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies. JAMA Neurol 2015; 72(8): 874-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.0749] [PMID: 26099072]
[71]
Carvajal-González A, Leite MI, Waters P, et al. Glycine receptor antibodies in PERM and related syndromes: characteristics, clinical features and outcomes. Brain 2014; 137(Pt 8): 2178-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu142] [PMID: 24951641]
[72]
van Sonderen A, Thijs RD, Coenders EC, et al. Anti-LGI1 encephalitis: Clinical syndrome and long-term follow-up. Neurology 2016; 87(14): 1449-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003173] [PMID: 27590293]
[73]
Boronat A, Gelfand JM, Gresa-Arribas N, Jeong H-Y, Walsh M, Roberts K, et al. Encephalitis and antibodies to DPPX, a subunit of Kv4.2 potassium channels. Ann Neurol 2013; 73(1): 120-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.23756] [PMID: 23225603]
[74]
Hara M, Ariño H, Petit-Pedrol M, et al. DPPX antibody-associated encephalitis: Main syndrome and antibody effects. Neurology 2017; 88(14): 1340-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003796] [PMID: 28258082]
[75]
van Sonderen A, Ariño H, Petit-Pedrol M, et al. The clinical spectrum of Caspr2 antibody-associated disease. Neurology 2016; 87(5): 521-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002917] [PMID: 27371488]
[76]
Spatola M, Petit-Pedrol M, Simabukuro MM, et al. Investigations in GABAA receptor antibody-associated encephalitis. Neurology 2017; 88(11): 1012-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003713] [PMID: 28202703]
[77]
Höftberger R, Titulaer MJ, Sabater L, et al. Encephalitis and GABAB receptor antibodies: novel findings in a new case series of 20 patients. Neurology 2013; 81(17): 1500-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a9585f] [PMID: 24068784]
[78]
Lin J, Li C, Li A, et al. Encephalitis with antibodies against the gabab receptor: high mortality and risk factors. Front Neurol 2019; 10: 1030.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01030] [PMID: 31681135]
[79]
Höftberger R, van Sonderen A, Leypoldt F, et al. Encephalitis and AMPA receptor antibodies: Novel findings in a case series of 22 patients. Neurology 2015; 84(24): 2403-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001682] [PMID: 25979696]
[80]
Peterson K, Rosenblum MK, Kotanides H, Posner JB. Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. I. A clinical analysis of 55 anti-Yo antibody-positive patients. Neurology 1992; 42(10): 1931-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.42.10.1931] [PMID: 1407575]
[81]
Rojas I, Graus F, Keime-Guibert F, et al. Long-term clinical outcome of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration and anti-Yo antibodies. Neurology 2000; 55(5): 713-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.55.5.713] [PMID: 10980743]
[82]
Honnorat J, Cartalat-Carel S, Ricard D, et al. Onco-neural antibodies and tumour type determine survival and neurological symptoms in paraneoplastic neurological syndromes with Hu or CV2/CRMP5 antibodies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009; 80(4): 412-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2007.138016] [PMID: 18931014]
[83]
Sillevis Smitt P, Grefkens J, de Leeuw B, et al. Survival and outcome in 73 anti-Hu positive patients with paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis/sensory neuronopathy. J Neurol 2002; 249(6): 745-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-002-0706-4] [PMID: 12111309]
[84]
Graus F, Keime-Guibert F, Reñe R, et al. Anti-Hu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis: analysis of 200 patients. Brain 2001; 124(Pt 6): 1138-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/124.6.1138] [PMID: 11353730]
[85]
Albert ML, Austin LM, Darnell RB. Detection and treatment of activated T cells in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Ann Neurol 2000; 47(1): 9-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1531-8249(200001)47:1<9:AID-ANA5>3.0.CO;2-I] [PMID: 10632096]
[86]
Pittock SJ, Lucchinetti CF, Parisi JE, et al. Amphiphysin autoimmunity: paraneoplastic accompaniments. Ann Neurol 2005; 58(1): 96-107.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.20529] [PMID: 15984030]
[87]
Dorresteijn LDA, Kappelle AC, Renier WO, Gijtenbeek JMM. Anti-amphiphysin associated limbic encephalitis: a paraneoplastic presentation of small-cell lung carcinoma. J Neurol 2002; 249(9): 1307-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-002-0677-5] [PMID: 12242559]
[88]
Antoine JC, Absi L, Honnorat J, et al. Antiamphiphysin antibodies are associated with various paraneoplastic neurological syndromes and tumors. Arch Neurol 1999; 56(2): 172-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.56.2.172] [PMID: 10025422]
[89]
Psimaras D, Carpentier AF, Rossi C. Cerebrospinal fluid study in paraneoplastic syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2010; 81(1): 42-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2008.159483] [PMID: 19324868]
[90]
Pittock SJ, Lucchinetti CF, Lennon VA. Anti-neuronal nuclear autoantibody type 2: paraneoplastic accompaniments. Ann Neurol 2003; 53(5): 580-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.10518] [PMID: 12730991]
[91]
Novaretti MCZ, Dinardo CL. Immunoglobulin: production, mechanisms of action and formulations. Rev Bras Hematol Hemoter 2011; 33(5): 377-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5581/1516-8484.20110102] [PMID: 23049343]
[92]
Barnes PJ. How corticosteroids control inflammation: Quintiles Prize Lecture 2005. Br J Pharmacol 2006; 148(3): 245-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0706736] [PMID: 16604091]
[93]
Reeves HM, Winters JL. The mechanisms of action of plasma exchange. Br J Haematol 2014; 164(3): 342-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjh.12629] [PMID: 24172059]
[94]
Beck RW, Cleary PA, Anderson MM Jr, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of corticosteroids in the treatment of acute optic neuritis. N Engl J Med 1992; 326(9): 581-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199202273260901] [PMID: 1734247]
[95]
Wikström A-C. Glucocorticoid action and novel mechanisms of steroid resistance: role of glucocorticoid receptor-interacting proteins for glucocorticoid responsiveness. J Endocrinol 2003; 178(3): 331-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1780331] [PMID: 12967326]
[96]
Ratman D, Vanden Berghe W, Dejager L, et al. How glucocorticoid receptors modulate the activity of other transcription factors: a scope beyond tethering. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 380(1-2): 41-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2012.12.014] [PMID: 23267834]
[97]
Grimaldi CM, Jeganathan V, Diamond B. Hormonal regulation of B cell development: 17 beta-estradiol impairs negative selection of high-affinity DNA-reactive B cells at more than one developmental checkpoint. J Immunol Baltim Md 1950 2006; 176(5): 2703-10.
[98]
Kovacs WJ. To B or not to B? Glucocorticoid impact on B lymphocyte fate and function. Endocrinology 2014; 155(2): 339-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2013-2085] [PMID: 24446731]
[99]
Piepgras J, Höltje M, Michel K, et al. Anti-DPPX encephalitis: pathogenic effects of antibodies on gut and brain neurons. Neurology 2015; 85(10): 890-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001907] [PMID: 26291285]
[100]
White KP, Driscoll MS, Rothe MJ, Grant-Kels JM. Severe adverse cardiovascular effects of pulse steroid therapy: is continuous cardiac monitoring necessary? J Am Acad Dermatol 1994; 30(5 Pt 1): 768-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(08)81508-3] [PMID: 8176017]
[101]
Souverein PC, Berard A, Van Staa TP, et al. Use of oral glucocorticoids and risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease in a population based case-control study. Heart 2004; 90(8): 859-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/hrt.2003.020180] [PMID: 15253953]
[102]
Laan RF, van Riel PL, van de Putte LB, van Erning LJ, van’t Hof MA, Lemmens JA. Low-dose prednisone induces rapid reversible axial bone loss in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, controlled study. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119(10): 963-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-119-10-199311150-00001] [PMID: 8105737]
[103]
Buckley L, Guyatt G, Fink HA, et al. 2017 American college of rheumatology guideline for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Arthritis Rheumatol 2017; 69(8): 1521-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.40137] [PMID: 28585373]
[104]
Moghadam-Kia S, Werth VP. Prevention and treatment of systemic glucocorticoid side effects. Int J Dermatol 2010; 49(3): 239-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-4632.2009.04322.x] [PMID: 20465658]
[105]
Vidarsson G, Dekkers G, Rispens T. IgG subclasses and allotypes: from structure to effector functions. Front Immunol 2014; 5: 520.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00520] [PMID: 25368619]
[106]
Jacob S, Rajabally YA. Current proposed mechanisms of action of intravenous immunoglobulins in inflammatory neuropathies. Curr Neuropharmacol 2009; 7(4): 337-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157015909790031166] [PMID: 20514213]
[107]
Dourmishev LA, Guleva DV, Miteva LG. Intravenous immunoglobulins: Mode of action and indications in autoimmune and inflammatory dermatoses. Int J Inflamm 2016; 20163523057
[108]
Guo Y, Tian X, Wang X, Xiao Z. Adverse effects of immunoglobulin therapy. Front Immunol 2018; 9: 1299.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.01299] [PMID: 29951056]
[109]
Zhang Y, Liu G, Jiang M, Chen W, Su Y. Efficacy of therapeutic plasma exchange in patients with severe refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurother J Am Soc Exp Neurother 2019; 16(3): 828-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13311-019-00725-4] [PMID: 30868469]
[110]
Köhler W, Bucka C, Klingel R. A randomized and controlled study comparing immunoadsorption and plasma exchange in myasthenic crisis. J Clin Apher 2011; 26(6): 347-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jca.20317] [PMID: 22095647]
[111]
Newsom-Davis J, Pinching AJ, Vincent A, Wilson SG. Function of circulating antibody to acetylcholine receptor in myasthenia gravis: investigation by plasma exchange. Neurology 1978; 28(3): 266-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.28.3.266] [PMID: 564482]
[112]
Gresa-Arribas N, Titulaer MJ, Torrents A, et al. Antibody titres at diagnosis and during follow-up of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: a retrospective study. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13(2): 167-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70282-5] [PMID: 24360484]
[113]
Heine J, Ly LT, Lieker I, et al. Immunoadsorption or plasma exchange in the treatment of autoimmune encephalitis: a pilot study. J Neurol 2016; 263(12): 2395-402.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-016-8277-y] [PMID: 27604620]
[114]
Ehrlich S, Fassbender CM, Blaes C, et al. Therapeutische Apherese bei autoimmuner Enzephalitis: Eine bundesweite Datenerhebung. Nervenarzt 2013; 84(4): 498-507.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00115-012-3710-7] [PMID: 23325312]
[115]
Dogan Onugoren M, Golombeck KS, Bien C, et al. Immunoadsorption therapy in autoimmune encephalitides. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2016; 3(2)e207
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/NXI.0000000000000207]
[116]
Köhler W, Ehrlich S, Dohmen C, et al. Tryptophan immunoadsorption for the treatment of autoimmune encephalitis. Eur J Neurol 2015; 22(1): 203-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ene.12389] [PMID: 24589025]
[117]
Gajdos P, Chevret S, Toyka KV. Plasma exchange for generalised myasthenia gravis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002275]
[118]
Dubey D, Britton J, McKeon A, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of intravenous immunoglobulin in autoimmune LGI1/CASPR2 epilepsy. Ann Neurol 2020; 87(2): 313-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.25655] [PMID: 31782181]
[119]
Kneen R, Michael BD, Menson E, et al. Management of suspected viral encephalitis in children - Association of British Neurologists and British Paediatric Allergy, Immunology and Infection Group national guidelines. J Infect 2012; 64(5): 449-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2011.11.013] [PMID: 22120594]
[120]
Iro MA, Sadarangani M, Absoud M, et al. ImmunoglobuliN in the Treatment of Encephalitis (IgNiTE): protocol for a multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open 2016; 6(11)e012356
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012356] [PMID: 27810972]
[121]
Kumar R, Birinder SP, Gupta S, Singh G, Kaur A. Therapeutic plasma exchange in the treatment of myasthenia gravis. Indian J Crit Care Med 2015; 19(1): 9-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0972-5229.148631] [PMID: 25624644]
[122]
Pinching AJ, Peters DK, Davis JN. Remission of myasthenia gravis following plasma-exchange. Lancet 1976; 2(8000): 1373-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(76)91917-6] [PMID: 63848]
[123]
Oji S, Nomura K. Immunoadsorption in neurological disorders. Transfus Apheresis Sci 2017; 56(5): 671-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.transci.2017.08.013] [PMID: 28919008]
[124]
Fassbender C, Klingel R, Köhler W. Immunoadsorption for autoimmune encephalitis. Atheroscler Suppl 2017; 30: 257-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosissup.2017.05.041] [PMID: 29096847]
[125]
DeSena AD, Noland DK, Matevosyan K, et al. Intravenous methylprednisolone versus therapeutic plasma exchange for treatment of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody encephalitis: A retrospective review. J Clin Apher 2015; 30(4): 212-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jca.21363] [PMID: 25664728]
[126]
Fujimaru T, Ito S, Masuda H, et al. Decreased levels of inflammatory cytokines in immunoglobulin-resistant Kawasaki disease after plasma exchange. Cytokine 2014; 70(2): 156-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2014.07.003] [PMID: 25082649]
[127]
Nakae H, Asanuma Y, Tajimi K. Cytokine removal by plasma exchange with continuous hemodiafiltration in critically ill patients. Ther Apher 2002; 6(6): 419-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-0968.2002.00464.x] [PMID: 12460404]
[128]
Hu F-Q, Shang F-R, Liu J-J, Yuan H. Plasma exchange for treating anti-Yo-associated paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration: Case report and literature review. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020; 99(33)e21760
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000021760] [PMID: 32872070]
[129]
Miyamoto K, Kato T, Watanabe H, Miyamoto E, Suzuki S. A case of paraneoplastic syndrome accompanied by two types of cancer. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002; 72(3): 408-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.72.3.408] [PMID: 11861710]
[130]
Grisold W, Giometto B, Vitaliani R, Oberndorfer S. Current approaches to the treatment of paraneoplastic encephalitis. Ther Adv Neurol Disorder 2011; 4(4): 237-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1756285611405395] [PMID: 21765874]
[131]
Vernino S, O’Neill BP, Marks RS, O’Fallon JR, Kimmel DW. Immunomodulatory treatment trial for paraneoplastic neurological disorders. Neuro-oncol 2004; 6(1): 55-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/S1152851703000395] [PMID: 14769141]
[132]
Leypoldt F, Wandinger K-P. Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Clin Exp Immunol 2014; 175(3): 336-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cei.12185] [PMID: 23937626]
[133]
Jones AL, Flanagan EP, Pittock SJ, et al. Responses to and outcomes of treatment of autoimmune cerebellar ataxia in adults. JAMA Neurol 2015; 72(11): 1304-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.2378] [PMID: 26414229]
[134]
Dalakas MC, Fujii M, Li M, Lutfi B, Kyhos J, McElroy B. High-dose intravenous immune globulin for stiff-person syndrome. N Engl J Med 2001; 345(26): 1870-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa01167] [PMID: 11756577]
[135]
Garcia-Montoya L, Villota-Eraso C, Yusof MYM, Vital EM, Emery P. Lessons for rituximab therapy in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet Rheumatol 2020; 2(8): e497-509.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30033-3]
[136]
Rubenstein JL, Combs D, Rosenberg J, et al. Rituximab therapy for CNS lymphomas: targeting the leptomeningeal compartment. Blood 2003; 101(2): 466-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2002-06-1636] [PMID: 12393404]
[137]
Larouche J-F, Bergeron M, Hampson G, Illidge T, Delage R. Rituximab cerebrospinal fluid levels in patients with primary central nervous system lymphoma treated with intravenous high dose rituximab. Blood 2011; 118(21): 1644-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood.V118.21.1644.1644]
[138]
Petereit HF, Rubbert-Roth A. Rituximab levels in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neurological autoimmune disorders. Mult Scler 2009; 15(2): 189-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1352458508098268] [PMID: 18971221]
[139]
Chen DR, Cohen PL. Living life without B cells: is repeated B-cell depletion a safe and effective long-term treatment plan for rheumatoid arthritis? Int J Clin Rheumatol 2012; 7(2): 159-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/ijr.12.7] [PMID: 22792128]
[140]
Keystone E, Fleischmann R, Emery P, et al. Safety and efficacy of additional courses of rituximab in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis: an open-label extension analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2007; 56(12): 3896-908.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.23059] [PMID: 18050221]
[141]
Shin Y-W, Lee S-T, Park K-I, et al. Treatment strategies for autoimmune encephalitis. Ther Adv Neurol Disorder 2017; 111756285617722347
[PMID: 29399043]
[142]
Cohen SB, Emery P, Greenwald MW, et al. Rituximab for rheumatoid arthritis refractory to anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy: Results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase III trial evaluating primary efficacy and safety at twenty-four weeks. Arthritis Rheum 2006; 54(9): 2793-806.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.22025] [PMID: 16947627]
[143]
Lightman SM, Utley A, Lee KP. Survival of long-lived plasma cells (LLPC): piecing together the puzzle. Front Immunol 2019; 10: 965.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00965] [PMID: 31130955]
[144]
Shams’ili S, de Beukelaar J, Gratama JW, et al. An uncontrolled trial of rituximab for antibody associated paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. J Neurol 2006; 253(1): 16-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-005-0882-0] [PMID: 16444604]
[145]
Nepal G, Shing YK, Yadav JK, et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in autoimmune encephalitis: A meta-analysis. Acta Neurol Scand 2020; 142(5): 449-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ane.13291] [PMID: 32484900]
[146]
Lee W-J, Lee S-T, Byun J-I, et al. Rituximab treatment for autoimmune limbic encephalitis in an institutional cohort. Neurology 2016; 86(18): 1683-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002635] [PMID: 27037228]
[147]
Dalakas MC, Rakocevic G, Dambrosia JM, Alexopoulos H, McElroy B. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of rituximab in patients with stiff person syndrome. Ann Neurol 2017; 82(2): 271-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.25002] [PMID: 28749549]
[148]
Ogino MH, Tadi P. CyclophosphamideStatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing 2020.
[149]
Ahlmann M, Hempel G. The effect of cyclophosphamide on the immune system: implications for clinical cancer therapy. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2016; 78(4): 661-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00280-016-3152-1] [PMID: 27646791]
[150]
Hurd ER, Giuliano VJ. The effect of cyclophosphamide on B and T lymphocytes in patients with connective tissue diseases. Arthritis Rheum 1975; 18(1): 67-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.1780180113] [PMID: 1078778]
[151]
Faurschou M, Sorensen IJ, Mellemkjaer L, et al. Malignancies in Wegener’s granulomatosis: incidence and relation to cyclophosphamide therapy in a cohort of 293 patients. J Rheumatol 2008; 35(1): 100-5.
[PMID: 17937462]
[152]
Fauci AS, Haynes BF, Katz P, Wolff SM. Wegener’s granulomatosis: prospective clinical and therapeutic experience with 85 patients for 21 years. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98(1): 76-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-98-1-76] [PMID: 6336643]
[153]
Mercan R, Bitik B, Ekinci Ö, Goker B. A surviving patient after a cumulative dose of 250 g of cyclophosphamide. Scand J Rheumatol 2015; 44(6): 520-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/03009742.2015.1054878] [PMID: 26291486]
[154]
Hao XS, Wang JT, Chen C, Hao YP, Liang JM, Liu SY. Effectiveness of mycophenolate mofetil in the treatment of pediatric anti-NMDAR encephalitis: a retrospective analysis of 6 cases. Front Neurol 2020; 11584446
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.584446] [PMID: 33240207]
[155]
McKeon A. Immunotherapeutics for autoimmune encephalopathies and dementias. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2013; 15(6): 723-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11940-013-0251-8] [PMID: 23765510]
[156]
Edwards LS, Barnett MH, Kiernan MC. 113 Rituximab and maintenance mycophenolate mofetil for treatment of refractory ANTI-N-METHYL-D-ASPARTATE-receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2018; 89(6): A44-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-ANZAN.112]
[157]
Tareyeva IE, Shilov EM, Gordovskaya NB. The effects of azathioprine and prednisolone on T- and B-lymphocytes in patients with lupus nephritis and chronic glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 1980; 14(5): 233-7.
[PMID: 6971722]
[158]
Nordan RP, Potter M. A macrophage-derived factor required by plasmacytomas for survival and proliferation in vitro. Science 1986; 233(4763): 566-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.3726549] [PMID: 3726549]
[159]
Hirano T, Yasukawa K, Harada H, et al. Complementary DNA for a novel human interleukin (BSF-2) that induces B lymphocytes to produce immunoglobulin. Nature 1986; 324(6092): 73-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/324073a0] [PMID: 3491322]
[160]
Linterman MA, Vinuesa CG. Signals that influence T follicular helper cell differentiation and function. Semin Immunopathol 2010; 32(2): 183-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00281-009-0194-z] [PMID: 20107805]
[161]
Bettelli E, Carrier Y, Gao W, et al. Reciprocal developmental pathways for the generation of pathogenic effector TH17 and regulatory T cells. Nature 2006; 441(7090): 235-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature04753] [PMID: 16648838]
[162]
Costa-Pereira AP. Regulation of IL-6-type cytokine responses by MAPKs. Biochem Soc Trans 2014; 42(1): 59-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/BST20130267] [PMID: 24450628]
[163]
Dhillon S. Intravenous tocilizumab: a review of its use in adults with rheumatoid arthritis. BioDrugs Clin Immunother Biopharm Gene Ther 2014; 28(1): 75-106.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40259-013-0076-8] [PMID: 24255004]
[164]
Lee W-J, Lee S-T, Moon J, et al. Tocilizumab in autoimmune encephalitis refractory to rituximab: an institutional cohort study. Neurother J Am Soc Exp Neurother 2016; 13(4): 824-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13311-016-0442-6] [PMID: 27215218]
[165]
Randell RL, Adams AV, Van Mater H. Tocilizumab in refractory autoimmune encephalitis: A series of pediatric cases. Pediatr Neurol 2018; 86: 66-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.016] [PMID: 30177347]
[166]
Sveinsson O, Granqvist M, Forslin Y, Blennow K, Zetterberg H, Piehl F. Successful combined targeting of B- and plasma cells in treatment refractory anti-NMDAR encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 312: 15-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.08.011] [PMID: 28886955]
[167]
Krogias C, Hoepner R, Müller A, Schneider-Gold C, Schröder A, Gold R. Successful treatment of anti-Caspr2 syndrome by interleukin 6 receptor blockade through tocilizumab. JAMA Neurol 2013; 70(8): 1056-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.143] [PMID: 23778873]
[168]
Buac D, Shen M, Schmitt S, et al. From bortezomib to other inhibitors of the proteasome and beyond. Curr Pharm Des 2013; 19(22): 4025-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612811319220012] [PMID: 23181572]
[169]
Field-Smith A, Morgan GJ, Davies FE. Bortezomib (velcadetrade mark) in the treatment of multiple myeloma. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2006; 2(3): 271-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/tcrm.2006.2.3.271] [PMID: 18360602]
[170]
Cassese G, Arce S, Hauser AE, Lehnert K, Moewes B, Mostarac M, et al. Plasma cell survival is mediated by synergistic effects of cytokines and adhesion-dependent signals. J Immunol Baltim Md 1950 2003; 171(4): 1684-90.
[171]
Murakami M, Kamimura D, Hirano T. Pleiotropy and specificity: Insights from the interleukin 6 family of cytokines. Immunity 2019; 50(4): 812-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2019.03.027] [PMID: 30995501]
[172]
Campbell AC, Skinner JM, Hersey P, Roberts-Thomson P, MacLennan IC, Truelove SC. Immunosuppression in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. I. Changes in lymphoid sub-populations in the blood and rectal mucosa following cessation of treatment with azathioprine. Clin Exp Immunol 1974; 16(4): 521-33.
[PMID: 4468852]
[173]
Fassbinder T, Saunders U, Mickholz E, et al. Differential effects of cyclophosphamide and mycophenolate mofetil on cellular and serological parameters in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 2015; 17(1): 92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13075-015-0603-8] [PMID: 25890338]
[174]
Behrendt V, Krogias C, Reinacher-Schick A, Gold R, Kleiter I. Bortezomib treatment for patients with anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis. JAMA Neurol 2016; 73(10): 1251-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.2588] [PMID: 27533122]
[175]
Scheibe F, Prüss H, Mengel AM, et al. Bortezomib for treatment of therapy-refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurology 2017; 88(4): 366-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003536] [PMID: 28003505]
[176]
Schroeder C, Back C, Koc Ü, et al. Breakthrough treatment with bortezomib for a patient with anti-NMDAR encephalitis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2018; 172: 24-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2018.06.005] [PMID: 29960102]
[177]
Turnbull MT, Siegel JL, Becker TL, Stephens AJ, Lopez-Chiriboga AS, Freeman WD. Early bortezomib therapy for refractory anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Front Neurol 2020; 11: 188.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00188] [PMID: 32292386]
[178]
Ley K, Laudanna C, Cybulsky MI, Nourshargh S. Getting to the site of inflammation: the leukocyte adhesion cascade updated. Nat Rev Immunol 2007; 7(9): 678-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nri2156] [PMID: 17717539]
[179]
Traub JW, Pellkofer HL, Grondey K, et al. Natalizumab promotes activation and pro-inflammatory differentiation of peripheral B cells in multiple sclerosis patients. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16(1): 228.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12974-019-1593-2] [PMID: 31733652]
[180]
Ho P-R, Koendgen H, Campbell N, Haddock B, Richman S, Chang I. Risk of natalizumab-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with multiple sclerosis: a retrospective analysis of data from four clinical studies. Lancet Neurol 2017; 16(11): 925-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30282-X] [PMID: 28969984]
[181]
Bloomgren G, Richman S, Hotermans C, et al. Risk of natalizumab-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(20): 1870-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1107829] [PMID: 22591293]
[182]
Scheibe F, Ostendorf L, Reincke SM, et al. Daratumumab treatment for therapy-refractory anti-CASPR2 encephalitis. J Neurol 2020; 267(2): 317-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-019-09585-6] [PMID: 31630242]
[183]
Ratuszny D, Skripuletz T, Wegner F, et al. Case report: Daratumumab in a patient with severe refractory anti-nmda receptor encephalitis. Front Neurol 2020; 11602102
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.602102] [PMID: 33414761]
[184]
Krejcik J, Casneuf T, Nijhof IS, et al. Daratumumab depletes CD38+ immune regulatory cells, promotes T-cell expansion, and skews T-cell repertoire in multiple myeloma. Blood 2016; 128(3): 384-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2015-12-687749] [PMID: 27222480]
[185]
Vercruyssen M, Hachem GE, Maerevoet M. The daratumumab crosses the blood brain barrier. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 2018; 18: S289.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clml.2018.07.229]
[186]
Georges G, McSweeney P, Bowen J, Pearlman M, Wundes A, von Geldern G, et al. Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation may be highly effective treatment for severe, treatment refractory stiff person syndrome (S31.007). Neurology 2018; 90(15)(Suppl.).
[187]
Kass-Iliyya L, Snowden JA, Thorpe A, Jessop H, Chantry AD, Sarrigiannis PG, et al. Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for refractory stiff-person syndrome: the UK experience. J Neurol 2020.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-10054-8] [PMID: 32785838]
[188]
Sanders S, Bredeson C, Pringle CE, et al. Autologous stem cell transplantation for stiff person syndrome: two cases from the Ottawa blood and marrow transplant program. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71(10): 1296-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.1297] [PMID: 25155372]
[189]
Rathore GS, Leung KS, Muscal E. Autoimmune encephalitis following bone marrow transplantation. Pediatr Neurol 2015; 53(3): 253-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2015.05.011] [PMID: 26220353]
[190]
Toda J, Maeda T, Akuta K, et al. Limbic encephalitis with antibodies to N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptor after allogeneic transplantation. Int J Hematol 2020; 112(2): 254-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12185-020-02859-0] [PMID: 32200528]
[191]
Vernino S. 2020.Exploratory study of efficacy of ocrelizumab in autoimmune encephalitis Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03835728
[192]
PhD SCM A Phase-2b, double-blind, randomized controlled trial to evaluate the activity and safety of inebilizumab in anti-nmda receptor encephalitis and assess markers of disease 2020. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04372615
[193]
Wickel J, Chung H-Y, Platzer S, et al. Generate-Boost: study protocol for a prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled, double-blinded phase II trial to evaluate efficacy and safety of bortezomib in patients with severe autoimmune encephalitis. Trials 2020; 21(1): 625.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04516-7] [PMID: 32641101]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
50
2
Wayfinder Image
World Antimicrobial Awareness Week
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy